餘暇Leisure
H:飛上枝頭變烏鴉20180818W7在0730至0855於CINEMAX上演，THE LEISURE CLASS,故查Leisure。
有閒階級
leisure class
leisure class解釋
有閑階級
leisure: n. 1. 空閑，閑暇。2. 悠閑，安逸。adj. 閑暇的，有空的，有閑的（階級等）。adj. -less 無空閑的。
class: n 1 階級;社會等級。2 學級；班級，年級，級，班；組；（有組織的）講習班；〈美國〉同年畢業班；
維基百科介紹:
餘暇（英語：Leisure），又稱寬暇、空閒、閒暇、休閒、自由時間（free time），意指花費在基本維生活動，以及花費在勞動、家務、企業、商業活動及教育之外的時間。對於餘暇的態度，隨著文化與生活型態不同，在各個地區有極大的差異。
餘暇與工作之間的分界，可能不太明顯，特別是針對某些需要長期投入的工作。在餘暇時進行的活動，通常稱為休閒或消遣。將大部份時間投入工作，以致於沒有餘暇進行休閒，這種人通常被稱為工作狂。對於餘暇活動的研究，稱為休閒研究（Leisure studies）。
字義
餘暇（英語：Leisure）這個英文名詞，字根來自拉丁語：licere，原義為允許、准許，也有自由的意思。這個單字進入法語，在14世紀時傳入中古英語，成為一個單字。
在上古漢語中，暇這個字與閑同意[1]，是指空閑、閒散、不做事的時間[2]，衍生出從容、放鬆的意思[3]。最早暇與假在古代源自同一個字，可相互假借，後來分化為兩個字[4]。餘暇最早出自應劭的奏章，指空閒沒做事的時間[5]。
歷史
不同的社會及文化中，對餘暇的態度有很大不同。人類學家發現，在狩獵採集社會中，餘暇時間的比例比農業社會及工業社會高。在發現美洲時，到達北美洲的歐洲殖民者，常批評休休尼人及大盆地原住民部落極度懶散，成為一種偏見。此外，因為婦女被認為應該負擔家務工作，一般來說，男性享有的餘暇，多於女性。
現代餘暇觀念，起源於19世紀英國，在工業革命之後發展出來。情境主義國際（Situationist International）曾提出，在現代資本主義社會中，餘暇只是一種刻意製造的社會幻覺，因為餘暇時間很少是可以被自由支配的；透過經濟及社會壓力，餘暇被當成一種商品，強迫個人購買。
註釋
More information: Tap to expand…
參考書目
Borsay, Peter. 2006. A History of Leisure: The British Experience since 1500, Palgrave Macmillan,.
Cross, Gary S. 2004. Encyclopedia of recreation and leisure in America. The Scribner American civilization series. Farmington Hills, Michigan: Charles Scribner's Sons.
Harris, David. 2005. Key concepts in leisure studies. London: Sage.
Hunnicutt, Benjamin Kline. 2013. Free Time: The Forgotten American Dream.Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
Jenkins, John M., and J.J.J. Pigram. 2003. Encyclopedia of leisure and outdoor recreation. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-25226-1.
Poser, Stefan: Freizeit und Technik, European History Online, Institute of European History, 2011, retrieved: 1st of March, 2013.
Poser, Stefan: Leisure Time and Technology, European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2011, retrieved: October 25, 2011.
Rojek, Chris, Susan M. Shaw, and A.J. Veal (Eds.) (2006) A Handbook of Leisure Studies. Houndmills, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
相關條目
休閒
工作與生活的平衡
生活型態
有閒階級論
勞動經濟學
炫耀性消費
娛樂
Leisure has often been defined as a quality of experience or as free time.Free time is timespent away from business, work, job hunting, domestic chores, and education, as well as necessary activities such as eating and sleeping. Situationist Internationalproposes that leisure does not evolve from free time, and free-time is an illusory concept that is rarely fully "free"; economic and social forces appropriate free time from the individual and sell it back to them as the commodity known as "leisure".Certainly most people's leisure activities are not a completely free choice and may be constrained by social pressures, e.g. people may be coerced into spending time gardening by the need to keep up with the standard of neighbouring gardens or go to a party because of social pressures.
This article is about free time. For other uses, see Leisure (disambiguation).
"Free time" redirects here. For other uses, see Free time (disambiguation).
"Relaxing" redirects here. For the racehorse, see Relaxing (horse). For other uses, see Relaxation.
"Timepass" redirects here. For the 2014 Marathi-language film, see Timepass (film).
Public parks were initially set aside for recreation and leisure and sportA man relaxing on a couchPeople enjoying some leisure timeLeisure time swimming at an oasis
Leisure as experienceusually emphasizes dimensions of perceived freedom and choice. It is done for "its own sake", for the quality of experience and involvement.Other classic definitions include Thorsten Veblen's (1899) of "nonproductive consumption of time." Different disciplines have definitions reflecting their common issues: for example, sociology on social forces and contexts and psychology as mental and emotional states and conditions. From a research perspective, these approaches have an advantage of being quantifiable and comparable over time and place.
Leisure studiesand sociology of leisure are the academic disciplinesconcerned with the study and analysis of leisure. Recreation differs from leisure in that it is a purposeful activity that includes the experience of leisure in activity contexts. Economists consider that leisure times are valuable to a person like wages that they could earn for the same time spend towards the activity. If it were not, people would have worked instead of taking leisure.However, the distinction between leisure and unavoidable activities is not a rigidly defined one, e.g. people sometimes do work-oriented tasks for pleasureas well as for long-term utility.A related concept is social leisure, which involves leisurely activities in social settings, such as extracurricular activities, e.g. sports, clubs. Another related concept is that of family leisure. Relationships with others is usually a major factor in both satisfaction and choice.
History of leisure
Leisure has historically been the privilege of the upper-class.Opportunities for leisure came with more money, or organization, and less working time, rising dramatically in the mid-to-late 19th century, starting in Great Britain and spreading to other rich nations in Europe. It spread as well to the United States, although that country had a reputation in Europe for providing much less leisure despite its wealth. Immigrants to the United States discovered they had to work harder than they did in Europe.Economists continue to investigate why Americans work longer hours.In a recent book, Laurent Turcot argues that leisure was not created in the 19th century but is imbricated in the occidental world since the beginning of history.
Canada
In Canada, leisure in the country is related to the decline in work hours and is shaped by moral values, and the ethnic-religious and gender communities. In a cold country with winter's long nights, and summer's extended daylight, favorite leisure activities include horse racing, team sports such as hockey, singalongs, roller skating and board games.The churches tried to steer leisure activities, by preaching against drinking and scheduling annual revivals and weekly club activities. By 1930 radio played a major role in uniting Canadians behind their local or regional hockey teams. Play-by-play sports coverage, especially of ice hockey, absorbed fans far more intensely than newspaper accounts the next day. Rural areas were especially influenced by sports coverage.
France
Leisure by the mid-19th century was no longer an individualistic activity. It was increasingly organized. In the French industrial city of Lille, with a population of 80,000 in 1858, the cabarets or taverns for the working class numbered 1300, or one for every three houses. Lille counted 63 drinking and singing clubs, 37 clubs for card players, 23 for bowling, 13 for skittles, and 18 for archery. The churches likewise have their social organizations. Each club had a long roster of officers, and a busy schedule of banquets, festivals and competitions.
United Kingdom
A caricature of upper class Victorian tourists, 1852
As literacy, wealth, ease of travel, and a broadened sense of community grew in Britain from the mid-19th century onward, there was more time and interest in leisure activities of all sorts, on the part of all classes.
Opportunities for leisure activities increased because real wages continued to grow and hours of work continued to decline. In urban Britain, the nine-hour day was increasingly the norm; 1874 factory act limited the workweek to 56.5 hours. The movement toward an eight-hour day. Furthermore, system of routine annual vacations came into play, starting with white-collar workers and moving into the working-class. Some 200 seaside resorts emerged thanks to cheap hotels and inexpensive railway fares, widespread banking holidays and the fading of many religious prohibitions against secular activities on Sundays.
By the late Victorian era, the leisure industry had emerged in all British cities, and the pattern was copied across Western Europe and North America. It provided scheduled entertainment of suitable length and convenient locales at inexpensive prices. These include sporting events, music halls, and popular theater. By 1880 football was no longer the preserve of the social elite, as it attracted large working-class audiences. Average gate was 5,000 in 1905, rising to 23,000 in 1913. That amounted to 6 million paying customers with a weekly turnover of £400,000. Sports by 1900 generated some three percent of the total gross national product in Britain. Professionalization of sports was the norm, although some new activities reached an upscale amateur audience, such as lawn tennis and golf. Women were now allowed in some sports, such as archery, tennis, badminton and gymnastics.
Leisure was primarily a male activity, with middle-class women allowed in at the margins. There were class differences with upper-class clubs, and working-class and middle-class pubs. Heavy drinking declined; there was more betting on outcomes. Participation in sports and all sorts of leisure activities increased for average English people, and their interest in spectator sports increased dramatically.
By the 1920s the cinema and radio attracted all classes, ages, and genders in very large numbers. Giant palaces were built for the huge audiences that wanted to see Hollywood films. In Liverpool 40 percent of the population attended one of the 69 cinemas once a week; 25 percent went twice. Traditionalists grumbled about the American cultural invasion, but the permanent impact was minor.
The British showed a more profound interest in sports, and in greater variety, that any rival. They gave pride of place to such moral issues as sportsmanship and fair play.Cricket became symbolic of the Imperial spirit throughout the Empire. Soccer proved highly attractive to the urban working classes, which introduced the rowdy spectator to the sports world. In some sports, there was significant controversy in the fight for amateur purity especially in rugby and rowing. New games became popular almost overnight, including golf, lawn tennis, cycling and hockey. Women were much more likely to enter these sports than the old established ones. The aristocracy and landed gentry, with their ironclad control over land rights, dominated hunting, shooting, fishing and horse racing.
Cricket had become well-established among the English upper class in the 18th century, And was a major factor in sports competition among the public schools. Army units around the Empire had time on their hands, and encouraged the locals to learn cricket so they could have some entertaining competition. Most of the Empire embraced cricket, with the exception of Canada.Cricket test matches (international) began by the 1870s; the most famous is that between Australia and Britain for "The Ashes."
Types
The range of leisure activities extends from the very informal and casual to highly organised and long-lasting activities. A significant subset of leisure activities are hobbies which are undertaken for personal satisfaction, usually on a regular basis, and often result in satisfaction through skill development or recognised achievement, sometimes in the form of a product. The list of hobbies is ever changing as society changes.
Serious leisure
Substantial and fulfilling hobbies and pursuits are described by Stebbins as serious leisure. The Serious Leisure Perspective is a way of viewing the wide range of leisure pursuits in three main categories: casual leisure, serious leisure, and project-based Leisure.
"Serious leisure is the systematic pursuit of an amateur, hobbyist, or volunteer ... that is highly substantial, interesting, and fulfilling and where ... participants find a [leisure] career...". For example, collecting stamps or maintaining a public wetland area.
People undertaking serious leisure can be categorised as amateurs, volunteers or hobbyists. Their engagement is distinguished from casual leisure by a high level of perseverance, effort, knowledge and training required and durable benefits and the sense that one can create in effect a leisure career through such activity.
The range of serious leisure activities is growing rapidly in modern timeswith developed societies having greater leisure time, longevity and prosperity. The Internet is providing increased support for amateurs and hobbyists to communicate, display and share products.
Reading
As literacy and leisure time expanded after 1900, reading became a popular pastime. New additions to adult fiction doubled during the 1920s, reaching 2800 new books a year by 1935. Libraries tripled their stocks, and saw heavy demand for new fiction. A dramatic innovation was the inexpensive paperback, pioneered by Allen Lane (1902–70) at Penguin Books in 1935. The first titles included novels by Ernest Hemingway and Agatha Christie. They were sold cheap (usually sixpence) in a wide variety of inexpensive stores such as Woolworth's. Penguin aimed at an educated middle class "middlebrow" audience. It avoided the downscale image of American paperbacks. The line signaled cultural self-improvement and political education. The more polemical Penguin Specials, typically with a leftist orientation for Labour readers, were widely distributed during World War II. However the war years caused a shortage of staff for publishers and book stores, and a severe shortage of rationed paper, worsened by the air raid on Paternoster Square in 1940 that burned 5 million books in warehouses.
Romantic fiction was especially popular, with Mills and Boon the leading publisher. Romantic encounters were embodied in a principle of sexual purity that demonstrated not only social conservatism, but also how heroines could control their personal autonomy.Adventure magazines became quite popular, especially those published by DC Thomson; the publisher sent observers around the country to talk to boys and learn what they wanted to read about. The story line in magazines and cinema that most appealed to boys was the glamorous heroism of British soldiers fighting wars that were perceived as exciting and just.
Casual leisure
"Casual leisure is immediately, intrinsically rewarding; and it is a relatively short-lived, pleasurable activity requiring little or no special training to enjoy it." For example, watching TV or going for a swim. In 2018 the diary of United States President Donald Trump was leaked to the media, showing a large proportion of each day devoted to leisure in unstructured free time – listed by his staff under the euphemism: "executive time".
Project-based leisure
"Project-based leisure is a short-term, moderately complicated, either one-shot or occasional, though infrequent, creative undertaking carried out in free time." For example, working on a single Wikipedia article or building a garden feature.
Cultural differences
GI Card Game, Watercolor by James Pollock, U. S. Army Vietnam Combat Artists Team IV (CAT IV 1967). During the Vietnam War soldiers waiting to go on patrol would sometimes spend their leisure time playing cards. Courtesy National Museum of the United States Army.
Time available for leisure varies from one society to the next, although anthropologists have found that hunter-gathererstend to have significantly more leisure time than people in more complex societies. As a result, band societies such as the Shoshone of the Great Basincame across as extraordinarily lazy to European colonialists.
Workaholics, less common than the social myths, are those who work compulsively at the expense of other activities. They prefer to work rather than spend time socializing and engaging in other leisure activities.
European and American men statistically have more leisure time than women, due to both household and parenting responsibilities and increasing participation in the paid employment. In Europe and the United States, adult men usually have between one and nine hours more leisure time than women do each week.
Family leisure
Family leisure is defined as time that parents and children spend together in free time or recreational activities, and it can be expanded to address intergenerational family leisure as time that grandparents, parents, and grandchildren spend together in free time or recreational activities.Leisure can become a central place for the development of emotional closeness and strong family bonds. Contexts such as urban/rural shape the perspectives, meanings, and experiences of family leisure. For example, leisure moments are part of work in rural areas, and the rural idyll is enacted by urban families on weekends, but both urban and rural families somehow romanticize rural contexts as ideal spaces for family making (connection to nature, slower and more intimate space, notion of a caring social fabric, tranquillity, etc.). Also, much "family leisure" requires tasks that are most often assigned to women.
Aging
Leisure is important across the lifespan and can facilitate a sense of control and self-worth.Older adults, specifically, can benefit from physical, social, emotional, cultural, and spiritual aspects of leisure. Leisure engagement and relationships are commonly central to "successful" and satisfying aging. For example, engaging in leisure with grandchildren can enhance feelings of generativity, whereby older adults can achieve well-being by leaving a legacy beyond themselves for future generations.
See also
Conspicuous consumption
Conspicuous leisure
Entertainment
Labour economics
Leisure satisfaction
Lifestyle (sociology)
Recreation
The Theory of the Leisure Class
Travel + Leisure
Waiting for the Weekend
Work-leisure dichotomy
Work-life balance
References
More information: Tap to expand…
Further reading
Cross, Gary S. Encyclopedia of recreation and leisure in America.(2004).
Harris, David. Key concepts in leisure studies. (Sage, 2005)
Hunnicutt, Benjamin Kline.Free Time: The Forgotten American Dream. (Temple University Press, 2013).
Ibrahim, Hilmi. Leisure and society: a comparative approach(1991).
Jenkins, John M., and J.J.J. Pigram.Encyclopedia of leisure and outdoor recreation. (Routledge, 2003). ISBN 0-415-25226-1.
Kostas Kalimtzis. An Inquiry into the Philosophical Concept of Scholê: Leisure As a Political End. London; New York: Bloomsbury, 2017.
Rojek, Chris, Susan M. Shaw, and A.J. Veal, eds/ A Handbook of Leisure Studies. (2006).
History of leisure
Abrams, Lynn. Workers' culture in imperial Germany: leisure and recreation in the Rhineland and Westphalia(2002).
Beck, Peter J. "Leisure and Sport in Britain." in Chris Wrigley, ed., A Companion to Early Twentieth-Century Britain (2008): 453-69.
Borsay, Peter. A History of Leisure: The British Experience since 1500(Palgrave Macmillan, 2006).
Burke, Peter. "The Invention of Leisure in Early Modern Europe". In: Past and Present 146 (1995), p. 136-150.
Cross, Gary. A social history of leisure since 1600 (1990).
De Grazia, Victoria. The culture of consent: mass organisation of leisure in fascist Italy(2002).
Hatcher, John. "Labour, Leisure and Economic Thought before the Nineteenth Century". In: Past and Present 160 (1998), p. 64-115.
Koshar, Rudy. Histories of Leisure (2002).
Levinson, David, and Karen Christensen. Encyclopedia of world sport: from ancient times to the present (Oxford UP, 1999).
Marrus, Michael R. The Emergence of Leisure. New York 1974
Poser, Stefan: Freizeit und Technik, European History Online, Institute of European History, 2011, retrieved: 1 March 2013.
Poser, Stefan: Leisure Time and Technology, European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2011, retrieved: 25 October 2011.
Stearns, Peter N. ed. Encyclopedia of European social history from 1350 to 2000(2001) 5:3-261; 18 essays by experts
Struna, Nancy L. People of Prowess Sport Leisure and Labor in Early Anglo-America(1996) excerpt
Towner, John, and Geoffrey Wall. "History and tourism." Annals of Tourism Research 18.1 (1991): 71-84. online
Towner, John. "The Grand Tour: a key phase in the history of tourism." Annals of tourism research 12#3 (1985): 297-333.
Turcot, Laurent Sports et Loisirs. Une histoire des origines à nos jours, Paris, Gallimard, 2016.
Turcot, Laurent "The origins of Leisure",International Innovation, April 2016
Walton, John K. Leisure in Britain, 1780-1939 (1983).
Withey, Lynne. Grand Tours and Cook's Tours: A history of leisure travel, 1750 to 1915(1997).
Historiography
